Conditionality in Literature. Cinematic convention. Artistic value and artistic appreciation

ARTISTIC CONVENTION in a broad sense

the original property of art, manifested in a certain difference, the discrepancy between the artistic picture of the world, individual images and objective reality. This concept indicates a kind of distance (aesthetic, artistic) between reality and a work of art, the awareness of which is an essential condition for an adequate perception of the work. The term “conventionality” is rooted in art theory because artistic creativity carried out predominantly in "life forms". Language, sign means of expression the arts, as a rule, represent some degree of transformation of these forms. Usually, three types of conventionality are distinguished: conventionality expressing the species specificity of art, due to the properties of its language material: paints in painting, stone in sculpture, words in literature, sound in music, etc., which predetermines the possibility of each type of art in displaying various aspects of reality and self-expression of the artist - a two-dimensional and planar image on canvas and screen, static in fine arts, the lack of a “fourth wall” in the theatre. At the same time, painting has a rich color spectrum, cinema has a high degree of image dynamism, and literature, due to the special capacity of verbal language, fully compensates for the lack of sensual clarity. Such conditionality is called “primary” or “unconditional”. Another type of conventionality is the canonization of a set of artistic characteristics, stable techniques and goes beyond the scope of partial reception, free artistic choice. Such a condition may be art style an entire era (Gothic, Baroque, Empire), to express the aesthetic ideal of a particular historical time; it is strongly influenced by ethnic and national characteristics, cultural representations, ritual traditions of the people, mythology. The ancient Greeks endowed their gods with fantastic power and other symbols of the deity. The religious and ascetic attitude to reality affected the conventions of the Middle Ages: the art of this era personified the otherworldly, mysterious world. The art of classicism was instructed to depict reality in the unity of place, time and action. The third type of conditionality is actually artistic technique depending on the creative will of the author. The manifestations of such conventionality are infinitely diverse, they are distinguished by pronounced metaphor, expressiveness, associativity, deliberately open re-creation of “forms of life” - deviations from the traditional language of art (in ballet - a transition to a normal step, in opera - to colloquial speech). In art, it is not necessary that the shaping components remain invisible to the reader or viewer. A skillfully implemented open artistic device of conventionality does not violate the process of perception of the work, but, on the contrary, often activates it.

There are two types of artistic convention. Primary artistic convention is associated with the very material used by this type of art. For example, the possibilities of the word are limited; it does not give the possibility to see color or smell, it can only describe these sensations:

The music rang in the garden

With such unspeakable grief

Fresh and pungent smell of the sea

Oysters on ice on a platter.

(A. A. Akhmatova, "In the Evening")

This artistic convention is characteristic of all types of art; the work cannot be created without it. In literature, the peculiarity of artistic convention depends on the literary genre: the external expressiveness of actions in drama, description of feelings and experiences in lyrics, description of the action in epic. The primary artistic convention is associated with typification: depicting even real person, the author seeks to present his actions and words as typical, and for this purpose he changes some properties of his hero. So, the memoirs of G.V. Ivanova"Petersburg Winters" evoked many critical responses from the characters themselves; e.g. A.A. Akhmatova was indignant at the fact that the author had invented never-before dialogues between her and N.S. Gumilyov. But G.V. Ivanov wanted not only to reproduce real events, but to recreate them in artistic reality, to create the image of Akhmatova, the image of Gumilyov. The task of literature is to create a typified image of reality in its sharp contradictions and peculiarities.
Secondary artistic convention is not characteristic of all works. It involves a deliberate violation of plausibility: the nose of Major Kovalev cut off and living on its own in N.V. Gogol, the mayor with a stuffed head in the "History of one city" M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. A secondary artistic convention is created through the use of religious and mythological images (Mephistopheles in Faust by I.V. Goethe, Woland in The Master and Margarita by M. A. Bulgakov), hyperbole(incredible strength heroes of the folk epic, the scale of the curse in N. V. Gogol's Terrible Revenge), allegories (Grief, Famously in Russian fairy tales, Stupidity in the "Praise of Stupidity" Erasmus of Rotterdam). A secondary artistic convention can also be created by a violation of the primary one: addressing the viewer in final scene"Inspector" by N.V. Gogol, an appeal to the astute reader in the novel by N.G. Chernyshevsky“What is to be done?”, the variability of the narrative (several options for the development of events are considered) in “The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman” by L. Stern, in the story of H. L. Borges"Garden of Forking Paths", violation of cause and effect connections in the stories of D.I. Kharms, plays by E. Ionesco. Secondary artistic convention is used to draw attention to the real, to make the reader think about the phenomena of reality.

This ideological and thematic basis, which determines the content of the work, is revealed by the writer in life pictures, in actions and experiences. actors, in their characters.

People, thus, are depicted in certain life circumstances, as participants in the events developing in the work that make up its plot.

Depending on the circumstances and characters depicted in the work, the speech of the characters acting in it and the author's speech about them (see Author's speech), i.e., the language of the work, are constructed.

Consequently, the content determines, motivates the writer's choice and depiction of life pictures, the characters of the characters, plot events, the composition of the work and its language, i.e., the form literary work. Thanks to it - life pictures, composition, plot, language - the content is manifested in all its completeness and versatility.

The form of a work is thus inextricably linked with its content, determined by it; on the other hand, the content of a work can manifest itself only in a certain form.

The more talented the writer, the more fluent he is literary form The more perfectly he depicts life, the deeper and more accurately he reveals the ideological and thematic basis of his work, achieving unity of form and content.

S. of L.N. Tolstoy's story "After the Ball" - the scenes of the ball, the execution and, most importantly, the author's thoughts and emotions about them. Ph is a material (i.e., sound, verbal, figurative, etc.) manifestation of S. and its organizing principle. Turning to a work, we are directly confronted with the language of fiction, with composition, and so on. and through these components of F, we comprehend the S. of the work. For example, by changing bright colors into dark ones in the language, through the contrast of actions and scenes in the plot and composition of the above-mentioned story, we comprehend the author's angry thought about the inhumane nature of society. Thus, S. and F. are interconnected: F. is always meaningful, and C is always formed in a certain way, but in the unity of S. and F., the initiating principle always belongs to C: new F. are born as an expression of a new S.

ARTISTIC CONVENTION - in a broad sense, the original property of art, manifested in a certain difference, the discrepancy between the artistic picture of the world, individual images and objective reality. This concept indicates a kind of distance (aesthetic, artistic) between reality and a work of art, the awareness of which is an essential condition for an adequate perception of the work. The term "conventionality" is rooted in the theory of art since artistic creativity is carried out mainly in "forms of life". Linguistic, symbolic expressive means of art, as a rule, represent one or another degree of transformation of these forms. Three types of conventionality are usually distinguished: conventionality expressing the specificity of art, due to the properties of its language material: paints in painting, stone in sculpture, words in literature, sound in music, etc., which predetermines the possibility of each type of art in the display of various aspects of reality and the self-expression of the artist - a two-dimensional and planar image on canvas and screen, static in fine art, the absence of a "fourth wall" in the theater. At the same time, painting has a rich color spectrum, cinema has a high degree of image dynamism, and literature, thanks to the special capacity of verbal language, completely compensates for the lack of sensual clarity. This conditionality is called "primary" or "unconditional". Another type of convention is the canonization of the totality of artistic characteristics, stable techniques and goes beyond the partial reception, free artistic choice. Such a convention can represent the artistic style of an entire era (Gothic, Baroque, Empire), express the aesthetic ideal of a particular historical time; it is strongly influenced by ethno-national features, cultural representations, ritual traditions of the people, mythology. The ancient Greeks endowed their gods with fantastic powers and other symbols of the deity. The religious and ascetic attitude to reality affected the conventions of the Middle Ages: the art of this era personified the otherworldly, mysterious world. The art of classicism was instructed to depict reality in the unity of place, time and action. The third type of conventionality is actually an artistic device, depending on the creative will of the author. The manifestations of such conventionality are infinitely diverse, they are distinguished by pronounced metaphor, expressiveness, associativity, deliberately open re-creation of “forms of life” - deviations from the traditional language of art (in ballet - the transition to a normal step, in opera - to colloquial speech). In art, it is not necessary that the shaping components remain invisible to the reader or viewer. A skillfully implemented open artistic device of convention does not violate the process of perception of the work, but, on the contrary, often activates it.

Literary Encyclopedia

artistic convention

Artistic convention

One of the fundamental principles of creating artwork. Denotes non-identity artistic image image object. There are two types of artistic convention. The primary artistic convention is associated with the very material used by this type of art. For example, the possibilities of the word are limited; it does not give the possibility to see color or smell, it can only describe these sensations:

The music rang in the garden

With such unspeakable grief

Fresh and pungent smell of the sea

Oysters on ice on a platter.

(A. A. Akhmatova, "In the Evening")
This artistic convention is characteristic of all types of art; the work cannot be created without it. In literature, the peculiarity of artistic convention depends on the literary genre: the external expressiveness of actions in drama, description of feelings and experiences in lyrics, description of the action in epic. The primary artistic convention is associated with typification: depicting even a real person, the author seeks to present his actions and words as typical, and for this purpose he changes some of the properties of his hero. So, the memoirs of G.V. Ivanova"Petersburg Winters" evoked many critical responses from the characters themselves; e.g. A.A. Akhmatova was indignant at the fact that the author had invented never-before dialogues between her and N.S. Gumilyov. But G.V. Ivanov wanted not only to reproduce real events, but to recreate them in artistic reality, to create the image of Akhmatova, the image of Gumilyov. The task of literature is to create a typified image of reality in its sharp contradictions and peculiarities.
Secondary artistic convention is not characteristic of all works. It involves a deliberate violation of plausibility: the nose of Major Kovalev cut off and living on its own in N.V. Gogol, the mayor with a stuffed head in the "History of one city" M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. A secondary artistic convention is created through the use of religious and mythological images (Mephistopheles in Faust by I.V. Goethe, Woland in The Master and Margarita by M. A. Bulgakov), hyperbole(the incredible power of the heroes of the folk epic, the scale of the curse in N.V. Gogol's "Terrible Revenge"), allegories (Grief, Famously in Russian fairy tales, Stupidity in "Praise of Stupidity" Erasmus of Rotterdam). A secondary artistic convention can also be created by a violation of the primary one: an appeal to the viewer in the final scene of N.V. Chernyshevsky“What is to be done?”, the variability of the narrative (several options for the development of events are considered) in “The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman” by L. Stern, in the story of H. L. Borges"Garden of Forking Paths", violation of cause and effect connections in the stories of D.I. Kharms, plays by E. Ionesco. The secondary artistic convention is used to draw attention to the real, to make the reader think about the phenomena of reality.

- see artistic biography...
- 1) non-identity of reality and its representation in literature and art; 2) a conscious, open violation of plausibility, a device for revealing the illusory nature of the artistic world ...
Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism
- an integral feature of any work, associated with the nature of art itself and consisting in the fact that the images created by the artist are perceived as not identical to reality, as something created by creative ...
Dictionary literary terms
- English. conventionality; German Relativitat. 1. A general sign of reflection, indicating the non-identity of the image and its object. 2...
Encyclopedia of Sociology
- CONVENTION in art. creativity of the ability of sign systems to express the same content by different structural means...
Philosophical Encyclopedia
- - in a broad sense, the original property of art, manifested in a certain difference, discrepancy between the artistic picture of the world, individual images and objective reality ...
Philosophical Encyclopedia
- Without exaggeration, we can say that the history of artistic bronze is at the same time the history of civilization. In a rough and primitive state, we meet bronze in the most remote prehistoric eras of mankind...
Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron
- R., D., Pr. conventions...
Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language
- CONVENTION, -and, wives. 1. see conditional. 2. A purely external rule fixed in social behavior. Trapped in conventions. Enemy of all conventions...
Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov
- CONVENTION, conventions, wives. 1. only units distraction noun to conditional in 1, 2 and 4 meanings. Conditional sentence. convention theatrical production. A syntactic construction with a conditional value. 2...
Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov
Explanatory Dictionary of Efremova
- convention I f. distraction noun according to adj. conditional I 2., 3. II f. 1. distraction noun according to adj. conditional II 1., 2. 2. A custom, norm or order generally accepted in society, but devoid of real value ...
Explanatory Dictionary of Efremova
- condition "...
Russian spelling dictionary
- ...
Word forms
- contract, agreement, custom; relativity...
Synonym dictionary
- Independence of the form of a linguistic sign from the nature of the designated object, phenomenon ...
Dictionary linguistic terms T.V. Foal

"artistic convention" in books

Fiction

author Eskov Kirill Yurievich

Fiction

From the book Amazing Paleontology [History of the Earth and Life on It] author Eskov Kirill Yurievich

Fiction Doyle A.K. lost World. - Any edition. Efremov I. A. The road of the winds. - M.: Geographiz, 1962. Crichton M. Jurassic Park. - M.: Vagrius, 1993. Obruchev V. A. Plutonium. - Any edition. Obruchev V. A. Sannikov Land. - Any edition. Roni J. Senior.

ART GALLERY

From the book The Tale of the Artist Aivazovsky author Wagner Lev Arnoldovich

ART GALLERY Long, long time ago, when Ivan Konstantinovich settled in Feodosia, he dreamed that a school for beginning artists would eventually be created in his hometown. Aivazovsky even developed a project for such a school and argued that the picturesque nature

"Conventional" and "natural"

From the book Articles on the semiotics of culture and art author Lotman Yuri Mikhailovich

“Conventionality” and “Naturality” There is an idea that the concept of semiotic nature applies only to the conventional theater and is inapplicable to the realistic one. It is impossible to agree with this. The concepts of naturalness and conventionality of the image lie on a different plane than

4.1. Artistic value and artistic appreciation

From the book Music Journalism and Music Criticism: tutorial author Kurysheva Tatyana Alexandrovna

4.1. Artistic Value and Artistic Evaluation “A work of art is, as it were, shrouded in music of an intonation-value context in which it is understood and evaluated,” wrote M. Bakhtin in “The Aesthetics of Verbal Creativity”2. However, before turning to

Conventional dating and authorship of the Yoga Sutras

From the book Philosophical Foundations of Modern Schools of Hatha Yoga author Nikolaeva Maria Vladimirovna

Conventional dating and authorship of the Yoga Sutras Doubts about the legitimacy of research Conceptual disagreements between representatives modern trends in yoga are clearly manifested in various interpretations of the Yoga Sutras, and even with the outward similarity of the conclusions, often

VI. Types of legitimate order: convention and law

From the book Selected Works author Weber Max

VI. Types of legitimate order: convention and law I. The legitimacy of an order can only be guaranteed internally, namely: 1) purely affectively: by emotional devotion; 2) value-rationally: by faith in the absolute significance of order as an expression of the highest,

The ethnonym "Hittites" is a convention created by scientists

From the book Ancient East author Nemirovsky Alexander Arkadievich

The ethnonym "Hittites" is a convention created by scientists. The origin of the name of the people who created a powerful state in Asia Minor is curious. The ancient Jews called ikhhig-ti ("Hittites"). In this form, this term is found in the Bible. Later, modern researchers found

3 Artistic fiction. Conditionality and lifelikeness

From the book Theory of Literature author Khalizev Valentin Evgenievich

3 Artistic fiction. Conventionality and life-likeness Artistic fiction at the early stages of the formation of art, as a rule, was not realized: the archaic consciousness did not distinguish between historical and artistic truth. But already in folk tales who never

Dominant woman: convention or condition of the game?

From the book Alpha Male [Instructions for use] author Piterkina Lisa

Dominant woman: convention or condition of the game? “There are almost no decent men left. And those who are at least good for something were taken apart as puppies. This joyless tasteless chewing gum is periodically chewed by all my female acquaintances. Sin, I also sometimes grumble at men.

MYTH 12: Canonicality is a convention, the main thing is faith. The UOC speculates with canonicity, but there is no faith there

From the book Ukrainian Orthodox Church: myths and truth of the author

MYTH 12: Canonicality is a convention, the main thing is faith. The UOC speculates on canonicity, but there is no faith there. TRUECanonicity is far from a convention.

§ 1. Conventionality of scientific knowledge

From the book Collection of Works author Katasonov Vladimir Nikolaevich

§ 1. Conventionality of scientific knowledge In 1904, Duhem's book "Physical Theory, Its Purpose and Structure" began to appear in separate editions. Immediately responded to these publications French philosopher A. Rey, who published the article “The Scientific Philosophy of Mr.

Prophecy Fulfillment, Prophecy Conditionality, and Deep Meaning

From the book Perceiving the Living Word of God by Hazel Gerhard

Fulfillment of prophecy, conditionality of prophecy and deep

3. THE CONDITIONALITY OF OUR REACTIONS AND THE ILLUSION OF AN INDEPENDENT "I"

From the book Path to Freedom. Start. Understanding. author Nikolaev Sergey

3. THE CONDITIONALITY OF OUR REACTIONS AND THE ILLUSION OF AN INDEPENDENT "I"

The Convention of Sexual Etiquette

From the book Sex: Real and Virtual author Kashchenko Evgeniy Avgustovich

Conditionality of sexual etiquette If we approach sexual culture strictly empirically, the convention of the norms and rules that it ascribes to its bearers is striking. Their use, voluntarily or involuntarily, leads to a state of affairs in which

Artistic convention is one of the fundamental principles of creating a work of art. Indicates the non-identity of the artistic image with the object of the image. Exists two types artistic convention. The primary artistic convention is associated with the very material used by this type of art. For example, the possibilities of the word are limited; it does not give the possibility to see color or smell, it can only describe these sensations:

The music rang in the garden

With such unspeakable grief

Fresh and pungent smell of the sea

Oysters on ice on a platter.

(A. A. Akhmatova, "In the Evening")

Secondary artistic convention is not characteristic of all works. It involves a deliberate violation of plausibility: the nose of Major Kovalev cut off and living on its own in N.V. Gogol, the mayor with a stuffed head in the "History of one city" M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. Secondary artistic convention is created hyperbole(the incredible power of the heroes of the folk epic, the scale of the curse in N.V. Gogol's Terrible Revenge), allegories (Woe, Likho in Russian fairy tales). A secondary artistic convention can also be created by a violation of the primary one: an appeal to the viewer in the final scene of N.V. Chernyshevsky“What is to be done?”, the variability of the narrative (several options for the development of events are considered) in “The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman” by L. Stern, in the story of H. L. Borges"Garden of Forking Paths", violation of cause and effect connections in the stories of D.I. Kharms, plays by E. Ionesco. Secondary artistic convention is used to draw attention to the real, to make the reader think about the phenomena of reality.

The depiction of artistic reality requires the rejection of the foundations of this reality. With any transformation, there is a qualitative leap from the world of three or four dimensions to the world of images (the sensation is experienced by analogy). By its very nature, art does not remake the world, but includes it in itself. For example, Crime and Punishment. Reality check does not bother the author, he caught the trends that are in reality, and refracts them. Art turns out to be more important and essential than the reality from which he denied.

Reality - one of the forms of conventionality, to thin. the world of the work cannot or could be confused with reality. Secondary conditioning is that which has to do with the elimination of external connection with reality. The primary convention is that when reality is transformed into evil. the world is undergoing a transformation of the reality of 3 dimensions into a dictionary dimension.

14. Epos as a literary genre.

Distinct concepts of childbirth were established in German aesthetics in the works of Schiller, Goethe, Schelling, Hegel. The classic question about childbirth, necessary for the consideration of literature, has existed since the end of the 18th-beginning. 19th centuries since the time of Hegel. Classification: epic, drama, lyrics. Each species has a special way of relating, seeing, imitating reality.

The writer, when he sits down to compose, does not think about which of the genera his conceived will fall into, only vague expectations. And he chooses the genre right away. Unconsciousness of the 1st and awareness of the 2nd choice make it possible to dissolve the classical system of literature and say that not all genres correspond to gender.

Aristotle's definition. The epic tells not what is in the soul, but what is outside, imitating nature, creating nature, like Homer. Reflects reality as a real-life picture of reality, described in its features. The attitude towards the world as a real world can be reproduced in art. Even the person himself is described objectively, as if from the outside. Objectivity in objectivity.

Hegel's theory reflecting the question of childbirth (universal process).

1) Thesis (epos). Nomination of 1 main thesis, beginning in development towards perfection, after that development takes place inside the world of man, social life, the reaction of the whole world comes and appears 

2) Antithesis (lyric) that conflicts with the thesis. The thesis is not cancelled, but the conflict between the thesis and antithesis leads to a new formation of theories and relations.

3) Transition to a new stage, the stage of synthesis (drama). The properties of the thesis and antithesis receive a new existence, unite, creating a new one.

In the epic genre of literature (other Greek epos - word, speech), the organizing beginning of the work is a story about the characters (characters), their destinies, actions, mindsets, about the events in their lives that make up the plot. Narrative is characterized by a temporal distance between the conduct of speech and the subject of verbal designations. It (Aristotle: the poet tells "about the event as something separate from himself") is conducted from the outside and, as a rule, has the grammatical form of the past tense. The distance between the time of the depicted action and the time of the narration about it is perhaps the most essential feature of the epic form.

"Narrative" in the narrow sense is a detailed designation in words of what happened once and had a temporal extension. In a broader sense, narrative also includes descriptions, i.e. recreating through words something stable, stable or completely motionless (such are most of the landscapes, the characteristics of the everyday environment, the features of the appearance of the characters, their states of mind). Descriptions are also verbal images of the periodically repeating. "He used to be still in bed: / They carry little notes to him," says, for example, about Onegin in the first chapter of Pushkin's novel. In a similar way, the narrative fabric includes the author's reasoning, which plays a significant role in L. N. Tolstoy, A. Frans, T. Mann.

In epic works, the narrative connects to itself and, as it were, envelops the statements of the characters - their dialogues and monologues, including internal ones, actively interacting with them, explaining, supplementing and correcting them. AND artistic text turns out to be a fusion of narrative speech and statements of characters.

The epic has no restrictions in the amount of text. The epic as a kind of literature includes both short stories(medieval and renaissance short stories; humorous O "Henry and early A.P. Chekhov), as well as epics and novels that cover life with extraordinary breadth. Such are the ancient Greek Iliad and Odyssey" by Homer, "War and Peace" by L. N Tolstoy, "The Forsyte Saga" by J. Galsworthy, "Gone with the Wind" by M. Mitchell.

An epic work can "absorb" so many characters, circumstances, events, destinies, details that are inaccessible to any other kind of literature or any other kind of art. At the same time, the narrative form contributes to the deepest penetration into inner world person. Complex characters, possessing many features and properties, incomplete and contradictory, in motion, formation, development are quite accessible to her.

In epic works, the presence of the narrator is deeply significant. This is a very specific form of human artistic reproduction. The narrator is an intermediary between the depicted and the reader, often acting as a witness and interpreter of the persons and events shown. In any epic work, the manner of perceiving reality is imprinted, inherent in the one who narrates, his vision of the world and his way of thinking. In this sense, it is legitimate to talk about the image of the narrator. This concept has become firmly established in literary criticism thanks to B. M. Eikhenbaum, V.V. Vinogradov, M.M. Bakhtin (works of the 1920s). Summing up the judgments of these scientists, G.A. Gukovsky wrote in the 1940s: "The narrator is not only a more or less concrete image<".>but also a certain figurative idea, principle and appearance of the speaker, or otherwise - certainly a certain point of view on what is being stated, a psychological, ideological and simply geographical point of view, since it is impossible to describe from anywhere and there can be no description without a descriptor.

The epic form reproduces the narrated and the narrator. The image of the narrator is found not in actions and not in direct outpourings of the soul, but in a kind of narrative monologue. Example: there can be no full-fledged perception of folk tales without close attention to their narrative manner, in which behind the naivety and ingenuity of the one who tells the story, gaiety and cunning, life experience and wisdom are guessed. It is impossible to feel the charm of the heroic epics of antiquity without catching the sublime structure of thoughts and feelings of the rhapsodist and storyteller.

Narrative types:

In which between the characters and the one who reports them, there is, so to speak, an absolute distance. Everything is clear to him, the gift of "omniscience" is inherent. And his image, the image of a creature that has ascended above the world, gives the work a flavor of maximum objectivity. Significantly, Homer was often likened to the celestial Olympians and called "divine". Based on such forms of storytelling, dating back to Homer, the classical aesthetics of the 19th century. argued that the epic kind of literature is the artistic embodiment of a special, "epic" worldview, which is marked by the maximum breadth of the outlook on life and its calm, joyful acceptance.

The distance between the narrator and the characters is not updated. Antique prose already testifies to this: in the novels "Metamorphoses" ("The Golden Ass") by Apuleius and "Satyricon" by Petronius, the characters themselves talk about what they saw and experienced. Such works express a view of the world that has nothing to do with the so-called "epic worldview".

subjective storytelling. The narrator began to look at the world through the eyes of one of the characters, imbued with his thoughts and impressions. Tolstoy sometimes paid tribute to this way of depicting. The battle of Borodino in one of the chapters of "War and Peace" is shown in the perception of Pierre Bezukhov, who was not experienced in military affairs; the military council in Fili is presented in the form of impressions of the girl Malasha.

Third person story.

The narrator may well appear in the work as a kind of "I". It is natural to call such personified narrators, speaking from their own, "first" person, narrators. The narrator is often at the same time a character in the work (Maxim Maksimych in the story "Bela" from "A Hero of Our Time" by M.Yu. Lermontov, Grinev in "The Captain's Daughter" by A.S. Pushkin).